Stormwater

Tag: Stormwater

Toxics in Fish report cover.

New guidance for cleanup of toxics in Puget Sound

An EPA-funded team of scientists and other experts has completed draft recommendations for the future cleanup of toxic chemicals in Puget Sound. The group’s Toxics in Fish Implementation Strategy addresses pollutants such as PCBs and a slew of emerging contaminants that can affect species throughout the waterway. The strategy will be available for public review until October 16th after which it may be revised and submitted to the Puget Sound Partnership’s Leadership Council for approval.
The Washington State Department of Ecology is co-developing the strategy with the Department of Commerce and the Washington Stormwater Center. [Puget Sound Institute scientist Andy James was a member of the core team that wrote the report.] The new recommendations, if approved, will address the Puget Sound Partnership’s Toxics in Fish Vital Sign which tracks contaminants in adult and juvenile Chinook salmon, English sole and Pacific herring.
Policy discussions of toxics in fish have often centered around the occurrence of cancer-causing PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyls) in the environment, particularly as they turn up in salmon. The state has been under pressure to reduce PCB levels to meet federal water quality standards and to address healthy fish consumption rates for humans. The governor’s orca task force also identified PCBs as a serious threat to Puget Sound’s endangered southern resident orcas, which feed mostly on contaminated Chinook. While PCB reduction continues to be a high priority, the new strategy will address a much wider array of chemicals that affect wildlife across the spectrum.
Among the new concerns are contaminants known as endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs).  These include pharmaceuticals, pesticides and other products that can pass through wastewater treatment plants and have biological effects on species throughout the ecosystem. The strategy recommends increased monitoring and prioritization of these contaminants to overcome what it calls “key data gaps” regarding their toxicity in Puget Sound.
EDCs may have wide-ranging effects on species. Estrogenic compounds in the water, possibly from pharmaceuticals like birth control pills, are causing male species of English sole in Puget Sound to produce egg proteins not typically seen in that sex. Scientists are looking for similar impacts on juvenile Chinook salmon and Pacific herring. Thousands of chemical compounds ranging from illicit drugs and opioids to personal care products and pesticides pass into Puget Sound waters every day. Researchers say they hope to determine which of these compounds will do the most harm to species. If the strategy is approved, this will be the first time that such contaminants will be included in the state’s Vital Sign measurements.
The strategy also addresses two additional categories of toxic chemicals, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and polybrominated diphenylethers (PBDEs). PAHs occur naturally in coal and crude oil and are commonly found in creosote that has been added to wood pilings or railroad ties as a wood preservative. Such chemicals can harm fish embryos in ways that mimic the effects of an oil spill. PBDEs are often used as flame retardants and can wash into Puget Sound through stormwater and wastewater or can be deposited as dust particles. Although banned from many products, PBDEs are still in circulation and can cause neurological problems in wildlife and humans. [Read more about these and other harmful “rogue chemicals” in the Encyclopedia of Puget Sound.] 
In addition to identifying these key concerns, the strategy proposes management solutions such as “finding and fixing toxic hotspots; incentivizing redevelopment in high loading areas to reduce toxic loading; and accelerating in-water near-water cleanup of toxics.” The report was developed as part of a series of state and federal implementation strategies designed to provide a roadmap for Puget Sound recovery efforts.
The draft strategy is available for review at the Puget Sound Partnership website.

Toxics in Fish report cover.

New guidance for cleanup of toxics in Puget Sound

An EPA-funded team of scientists and other experts has completed draft recommendations for the future cleanup of toxic chemicals in Puget Sound. The group’s Toxics in Fish Implementation Strategy addresses pollutants such as PCBs and a slew of emerging contaminants that can affect species throughout the waterway. The strategy will be available for public review until October 16th after which it may be revised and submitted to the Puget Sound Partnership’s Leadership Council for approval.
The Washington State Department of Ecology is co-developing the strategy with the Department of Commerce and the Washington Stormwater Center. [Puget Sound Institute scientist Andy James was a member of the core team that wrote the report.] The new recommendations, if approved, will address the Puget Sound Partnership’s Toxics in Fish Vital Sign which tracks contaminants in adult and juvenile Chinook salmon, English sole and Pacific herring.
Policy discussions of toxics in fish have often centered around the occurrence of cancer-causing PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyls) in the environment, particularly as they turn up in salmon. The state has been under pressure to reduce PCB levels to meet federal water quality standards and to address healthy fish consumption rates for humans. The governor’s orca task force also identified PCBs as a serious threat to Puget Sound’s endangered southern resident orcas, which feed mostly on contaminated Chinook. While PCB reduction continues to be a high priority, the new strategy will address a much wider array of chemicals that affect wildlife across the spectrum.
Among the new concerns are contaminants known as endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs).  These include pharmaceuticals, pesticides and other products that can pass through wastewater treatment plants and have biological effects on species throughout the ecosystem. The strategy recommends increased monitoring and prioritization of these contaminants to overcome what it calls “key data gaps” regarding their toxicity in Puget Sound.
EDCs may have wide-ranging effects on species. Estrogenic compounds in the water, possibly from pharmaceuticals like birth control pills, are causing male species of English sole in Puget Sound to produce egg proteins not typically seen in that sex. Scientists are looking for similar impacts on juvenile Chinook salmon and Pacific herring. Thousands of chemical compounds ranging from illicit drugs and opioids to personal care products and pesticides pass into Puget Sound waters every day. Researchers say they hope to determine which of these compounds will do the most harm to species. If the strategy is approved, this will be the first time that such contaminants will be included in the state’s Vital Sign measurements.
The strategy also addresses two additional categories of toxic chemicals, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and polybrominated diphenylethers (PBDEs). PAHs occur naturally in coal and crude oil and are commonly found in creosote that has been added to wood pilings or railroad ties as a wood preservative. Such chemicals can harm fish embryos in ways that mimic the effects of an oil spill. PBDEs are often used as flame retardants and can wash into Puget Sound through stormwater and wastewater or can be deposited as dust particles. Although banned from many products, PBDEs are still in circulation and can cause neurological problems in wildlife and humans. [Read more about these and other harmful “rogue chemicals” in the Encyclopedia of Puget Sound.] 
In addition to identifying these key concerns, the strategy proposes management solutions such as “finding and fixing toxic hotspots; incentivizing redevelopment in high loading areas to reduce toxic loading; and accelerating in-water near-water cleanup of toxics.” The report was developed as part of a series of state and federal implementation strategies designed to provide a roadmap for Puget Sound recovery efforts.
The draft strategy is available for review at the Puget Sound Partnership website.

Could Seattle's tech industry help tackle Puget Sound's stormwater problem? Image courtesy of NOAA.

‘Water 100 Project’ seeks to enlist region’s tech industry

Few cities in the world can rival Seattle’s combination of money and brain power. It’s a town where the world’s two richest men live within walking distance. Amazon and Microsoft and hundreds of other leading tech companies call this region home, driving the economy and influencing the way we live. Could this same corporate culture also find a way to clean up Puget Sound?
That’s the question behind The Nature Conservancy’s Water 100 Project. The project, with the input of scientists and policymakers and support from Boeing, is curating a list of 100+ innovative ways to curb water pollution in the Puget Sound region. The goal is to enlist the help of Puget Sound’s tech industry to tackle problems ranging from stormwater runoff to sewage spills.
It’s hardly a new idea to reach out to Puget Sound’s corporate leaders, says The Nature Conservancy’s Jessie Israel who conceived of the project. Many tech giants have been signaling their interest in protecting the environment for some time. In 2020, Amazon’s CEO Jeff Bezos pledged $10 billion to fight climate change. Microsoft has pledged to be ‘carbon negative’ by 2030 and other corporate giants like Google have made similar pledges. But identifying specific projects and where to direct the money has often proved difficult. Some argue that the tech giants need help finding where the biggest problems are and where their type of expertise can do the most good.
“Problem definition is critical,” according to Israel. “You really need that if you’re going to engage with the corporate community.”
Israel got the idea for the Water 100 Project after hearing about the book “Drawdown” by Paul Hawken which addresses a ranked list of ways to combat climate change. She had been hearing about that book from many in the corporate world and wondered if her group could do the same thing with water. After reaching out to Boeing and other collaborators including the Puget Sound Partnership, the project began to take off.
 “We have these chronic challenges here in Puget Sound, and we haven’t always figured out how to articulate them in a way that invites investment and new ways of innovation,” Israel says. “That’s part of what we’re trying to do with this project.”
Israel cites as one example an EPA-sponsored study that looked at the potential costs of reducing stormwater in King County. That study examined the price tag for completely removing the impact of all untreated stormwater, one of Puget Sound’s greatest sources of pollution. The study was partly a thought experiment designed to imagine what it would take to return the entire region to an unlikely ‘pre-development’ condition. The potential costs were staggering, reaching into the hundreds of billions of dollars. But Israel says there was a ray of hope.
Even in this extreme case — a scenario beyond what experts say would be needed to maintain a relatively healthy Puget Sound — “two-thirds [of the costs] were for operations, inspection and monitoring,” Israel says. “So, we had a government study that basically said we needed two-thirds of hundreds of billions of dollars to have humans do the monitoring and inspection of a decentralized network of raingardens and treatment facilities. This is in a world where we have technology solutions that can tell you if you’re out of eggs in your refrigerator or what the traffic is looking like at an intersection in Maple Valley.”
Solving this problem might be right in the wheelhouse for local tech companies, Israel says. “We have some pretty extreme remote sensing technologies available to us right now, and yet the private sector is not being asked to deploy those technologies to solve chronic government problems that are driving up the cost for all of us.” It is just one example of a hundred, she says.
So far, the project is in its early stages, but Israel hopes that eventually the Water 100 Project can be turned into a book similar to “Drawdown.” A full list of partners and advisors on the project — included among those are our director Joel Baker and PSI-affiliated scientists Ed Kolodziej and Stefano Mazzilli — is available at water100project.org.

Image courtesy of depavepugetsound.org.

Project seeks to “depave” Puget Sound

This is a guest blog from Partners in Puget Sound Recovery, an inter-agency group focused on strategies for stormwater mitigation, habitat protection and shellfish recovery in Puget Sound.
Project Spotlight: Replicable Model for Depave and LID Retrofits
Overview: 
This project will conduct three depave and retrofit activities providing direct stormwater benefit to three communities resulting in the removal of up to 15,000 square feet of excess pavement and the infiltration of up to 360,000 gallons of stormwater annually.
What we are doing: 
These activities will provide case studies for the development and publication of a Depave Puget Sound “How To” guidebook that will be provided to organizations and agencies throughout Puget Sound to make this a regionally adopted program.
How we’re doing it:
The three individual pavement removal projects detailed in this proposal will serve as case studies to highlight the three primary models/methods of implementing pavement removal/LID retrofit projects:

  • Community Driven Projects
  • Public/Private Partnership Projects
  • Multi-jurisdictional Projects

Why this issue is important:
This project will empower communities throughout Puget Sound to start their own Depave programs, adding green space to the urban landscape while drastically reducing stormwater pollution.
What you can do:
Support your local Depave efforts by nominating sites in your neighborhood that are unnecessary or excess pavement. Visit Pierce County Conservation District today to find more info.
About the organization:
Pierce Conservation District works with local landowners and public agencies to conserve natural resources that are essential to both our economy and our region’s quality of life.
More information
Did you know: The Stormwater Strategic Initiative supports depave and low impact development (LID) projects, such as the Pierce County Conservation District project highlighted here, given that their experiences can be easily replicable throughout Puget Sound resulting in enhanced stormwater management.  The Washington State Department of Ecology, Washington Stormwater Center, and the Washington State Department of Commerce believe in assisting local jurisdictions to develop innovative projects that address stormwater concerns locally and share their experiences and information regionally.

A dying female coho salmon in the Lower Duwamish spotted by Puget Soundkeeper volunteers in October 2017. Photo: Kathy Peter

Chemicals from automobile tires suspected in coho deaths

Findings authored this month by University of Washington scientists at the Center for Urban Waters and their collaborators provide new insight into “urban runoff mortality syndrome” affecting Puget Sound coho.  
By Jeff Rice
Chemicals linked to automobile tires have been found in stormwater associated with the widespread deaths of coho salmon in Puget Sound. The findings were presented this month in the journal Environmental Science & Technology and elevate tires as a prime suspect in “urban runoff mortality syndrome,” a condition that has been endangering coho salmon runs in the region.
For nearly two decades, researchers have been mystified by sudden die-offs of coho entering Puget Sound’s urban streams, particularly after it rains. The syndrome is thought to affect more than a third of the coho’s local range and may wipe out some spawning stocks entirely, scientists say.
As runoff from rain and snow flows downhill into Puget Sound, it picks up toxic chemicals from roadways and other surfaces. This deadly mixture will kill adult coho salmon within hours of exposure, but scientists have so far been unable to identify which of the potentially thousands of chemicals found in stormwater are lethal to the fish or where they come from.
While the authors caution that the findings do not show a definitive link between tires and coho deaths, they report that “the results indicate that [tire wear particles] are an under-appreciated contaminant source in urban watersheds.” They argue that the assessment of tires as a potential source of toxic contaminants should be a research priority.
The paper, co-authored by scientists at the University of Washington Center for Urban Waters, identifies a “chemical signature” of tire particles present in water samples where coho mortality was observed [Editor’s note: the Center for Urban Waters is a partner and collaborator with the Puget Sound Institute].
The paper’s lead author, University of Washington research scientist Kathy Peter, compared the findings to a chemical fingerprint. “We detect as many chemicals as possible in [each water sample],” Peter says, “and the chemicals that we detect in every sample that killed a coho are the chemical fingerprint of the mortality syndrome.”
Samples included stormwater runoff from the 520 bridge in Seattle and two other locations around Puget Sound where coho salmon were found dead or dying from exposure to stormwater. Researchers found chemicals from tire wear particles in every sample. Other chemicals from automotive sources such as motor oil, gear oil and antifreeze were also present in smaller numbers, but those from tire wear particles had the clearest chemical signature. Scientists have long suspected vehicles and roadways as a major culprit because the coho deaths most often occur in proximity to roads.
The research is part of a collaboration between scientists at the University of Washington, Washington State University, and NOAA. Authors of the paper include UW scientists at the Center for Urban Waters, the Southern California Coastal Water Research Project, NOAA and Washington State University School of the Environment.
The study was conducted using a new method of non-targeted screening of stormwater samples through high resolution mass spectrometry conducted at the Center for Urban Waters labs in Tacoma. These sensitive instruments allow scientists to identify hundreds to thousands of chemical compounds at low levels in every sample.
“When you run a stormwater sample, you might see 1,000 or 2,000 features, and each feature is a chemical,” Peter told our publication Salish Sea Currents earlier this year. “Some of them will be natural, but some will be synthetic compounds that you need to test.”
Paper co-author Ed Kolodziej of the University of Washington heads the lab where the study was conducted and will continue research into contaminant signatures of stormwater with support from a recent NSF grant. The project includes a collaboration with citizen scientists who will alert project members to salmon die-offs as they are happening. Kolodziej’s team will then collect and analyze water and tissue samples from these sites.
While scientists continue their research into identifying the chemical source of urban runoff mortality syndrome, scientists at Washington State University and NOAA have found that a relatively simple mixture of sand and soil can filter out many of the contaminants and can prevent the deadly effect on fish. Wildlife managers across the West Coast are hoping to eventually reduce coho deaths through a combination of stormwater filtration and eventually source control. 
Citation:
Using High-Resolution Mass Spectrometry to Identify Organic Contaminants Linked to Urban Stormwater Mortality Syndrome in Coho Salmon. Katherine T. Peter, Zhenyu Tian, Christopher Wu, Peter Lin, Sarah White, Bowen Du, Jenifer K. McIntyre, Nathaniel L. Scholz, and Edward P. Kolodziej. Environmental Science & Technology. DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.8b03287
 

University of Washington associate professor Ed Kolodziej

PSI collaborator receives NSF grant to study coho deaths

PSI collaborator Ed Kolodziej has received a $330,000 National Science Foundation grant to expand his research on toxic pollutants in Puget Sound. Kolodziej’s project will identify chemicals in stormwater that are killing coho salmon and endangering some spawning runs. The project includes a collaboration with citizen scientists who will alert project members to salmon die-offs as they are happening. Kolodziej’s team will then collect water and tissue samples from these sites that they will analyze at the labs of PSI’s parent group the Center for Urban Waters.
Project summary
In rapidly urbanizing areas of the Unites States, stormwater runoff is a major water quality and treatment problem because it accumulates many harmful chemicals from our homes, roads, and cities as it flows downstream. However, the chemical make-up of urban stormwater runoff is poorly understood although it is known to be harmful to fish and aquatic ecosystems (often called “urban stream syndrome”). This project will focus on identifying toxic chemicals in urban stormwater, especially focusing on understanding the link between stormwater pollution and observations of acute mortality in adult coho salmon in the Pacific Northwest. This project will measure harmful pollutants in stormwater so we can better manage urban water quality and protect fish such as the economically and culturally important coho salmon. Citizen scientists will help monitor watersheds for salmon mortality as it happens, and alert project researchers to collect water and tissue samples during acute mortality events. The project will work with citizen science groups, regional agencies, and the Center for Urban Waters (Tacoma, WA) to collaborate with local, regional, state, and tribal communities who are very interested in protecting salmon for economic and cultural reasons.
Relative to well-studied urban pollutant sources such as municipal wastewater effluent, very little is known about the chemical composition of urban stormwater runoff despite its importance as a major source of chemical pollutants to receiving waters.In fact, in the Pacific Northwest, an unexplained acute mortality phenomena occurs widely in urbanized watersheds where 50-100% of adult coho salmon quickly (1-4 h) perish after urban stormwater exposure.Because salmon mortality occurs prior to spawning and severely compromises reproductive output, local extinctions and failed stream restoration efforts focused on salmon habitat and health are expected. This project will focus on characterizing the identity and quantity of novel contaminants in urban stormwater using high-resolution mass spectrometry, especially seeking to identify stormwater contaminants with problematic structures (e.g. metabolic poisons that inhibit mitochondrial electron transport and induce cellular hypoxia).Water and tissue samples collected by citizen scientists will be screened using broad spectrum, suspect and non-target analyses to identify novel pollutants in urban stormwater. Chemical bioactivity will be selectively screening via in-silico receptor docking to detect novel bioactivity from high interest detections. Collaborating with ongoing ecotoxicology efforts, selective fractionation and chemical screening will be used to identify toxicant candidates in toxicologically active samples and link toxicant chemical characteristics to typical stormwater runoff treatment systems mechanistically. Project outputs will be broadly disseminated through collaboration and outreach efforts to local and regional citizen science programs. Through the project affiliation with the Center for Urban Waters, additional outreach to local, regional, state, and tribal stakeholders, many of them very interested in salmonid health for economic and cultural reasons, will occur.Project collaborations will include regional municipalities and agencies such as the Puget Sound Partnership, a Washington state agency dedicated to protecting the Puget Sound ecosystem, as well as NOAA-NMFS researchers and regulators focused on the health of economically important salmon populations. Via project characterization efforts, the management of urban stormwater quality can be improved by improved capabilities for chemical source control and optimization of treatment technologies.
Related story in Salish Sea Currents: What is killing the coho? 

University of Washington associate professor Ed Kolodziej

PSI collaborator receives NSF grant to study coho deaths

PSI collaborator Ed Kolodziej has received a $330,000 National Science Foundation grant to expand his research on toxic pollutants in Puget Sound. Kolodziej’s project will identify chemicals in stormwater that are killing coho salmon and endangering some spawning runs. The project includes a collaboration with citizen scientists who will alert project members to salmon die-offs as they are happening. Kolodziej’s team will then collect water and tissue samples from these sites that they will analyze at the labs of PSI’s parent group the Center for Urban Waters.
Project summary
In rapidly urbanizing areas of the Unites States, stormwater runoff is a major water quality and treatment problem because it accumulates many harmful chemicals from our homes, roads, and cities as it flows downstream. However, the chemical make-up of urban stormwater runoff is poorly understood although it is known to be harmful to fish and aquatic ecosystems (often called “urban stream syndrome”). This project will focus on identifying toxic chemicals in urban stormwater, especially focusing on understanding the link between stormwater pollution and observations of acute mortality in adult coho salmon in the Pacific Northwest. This project will measure harmful pollutants in stormwater so we can better manage urban water quality and protect fish such as the economically and culturally important coho salmon. Citizen scientists will help monitor watersheds for salmon mortality as it happens, and alert project researchers to collect water and tissue samples during acute mortality events. The project will work with citizen science groups, regional agencies, and the Center for Urban Waters (Tacoma, WA) to collaborate with local, regional, state, and tribal communities who are very interested in protecting salmon for economic and cultural reasons.
Relative to well-studied urban pollutant sources such as municipal wastewater effluent, very little is known about the chemical composition of urban stormwater runoff despite its importance as a major source of chemical pollutants to receiving waters.In fact, in the Pacific Northwest, an unexplained acute mortality phenomena occurs widely in urbanized watersheds where 50-100% of adult coho salmon quickly (1-4 h) perish after urban stormwater exposure.Because salmon mortality occurs prior to spawning and severely compromises reproductive output, local extinctions and failed stream restoration efforts focused on salmon habitat and health are expected. This project will focus on characterizing the identity and quantity of novel contaminants in urban stormwater using high-resolution mass spectrometry, especially seeking to identify stormwater contaminants with problematic structures (e.g. metabolic poisons that inhibit mitochondrial electron transport and induce cellular hypoxia).Water and tissue samples collected by citizen scientists will be screened using broad spectrum, suspect and non-target analyses to identify novel pollutants in urban stormwater. Chemical bioactivity will be selectively screening via in-silico receptor docking to detect novel bioactivity from high interest detections. Collaborating with ongoing ecotoxicology efforts, selective fractionation and chemical screening will be used to identify toxicant candidates in toxicologically active samples and link toxicant chemical characteristics to typical stormwater runoff treatment systems mechanistically. Project outputs will be broadly disseminated through collaboration and outreach efforts to local and regional citizen science programs. Through the project affiliation with the Center for Urban Waters, additional outreach to local, regional, state, and tribal stakeholders, many of them very interested in salmonid health for economic and cultural reasons, will occur.Project collaborations will include regional municipalities and agencies such as the Puget Sound Partnership, a Washington state agency dedicated to protecting the Puget Sound ecosystem, as well as NOAA-NMFS researchers and regulators focused on the health of economically important salmon populations. Via project characterization efforts, the management of urban stormwater quality can be improved by improved capabilities for chemical source control and optimization of treatment technologies.
Related story in Salish Sea Currents: What is killing the coho? 

A dying female coho salmon in the Lower Duwamish spotted by Puget Soundkeeper volunteers in October 2017. Photo: Kathy Peter

What makes stormwater toxic?

Stormwater may be Puget Sound’s most well-known pollutant, and at the same time its least known. While the state has called stormwater Puget Sound’s largest source of toxic contaminants, scientists are still having a tough time answering two basic questions about it: What is stormwater, exactly, and what does it do?
Our magazine Salish Sea Currents looks at efforts by researchers to identify toxic chemicals in stormwater that may be killing large numbers of coho salmon in Puget Sound.

PSI scientists are working to identify chemicals in stormwater

This much we know: Stormwater is nasty stuff. The state of Washington has called it one of the leading threats to the Puget Sound ecosystem. It can kill salmon within hours and it contributes to all kinds of health problems for species ranging from orcas to humans. What we don’t know, however, is exactly what’s in it.
Rain and snowmelt wash an untold number of toxic chemicals from our streets and other impervious surfaces directly into our waterways, but there is no such thing as typical stormwater. It simply includes whatever is picked up along the way, be it PCBs or petroleum.
That poses some big questions for scientists who want to understand how stormwater affects area wildlife. Why do some species of salmon die after exposure to stormwater and not others? How much do automobiles contribute to the problem? Do the nastiest chemicals come from leaking oil or car tires or the asphalt from the roads themselves? The questions are seemingly infinite.
Understanding how to identify chemicals in stormwater could go a long way toward solving the problem, scientists say. Now several scientists at the Puget Sound Institute and the University of Washington Center for Urban Waters are developing new techniques for analyzing the chemical composition of stormwater.
They recently published a paper outlining some of these techniques in the journal Environmental Science. The paper was co-authored with collaborators from NOAA and the Washington Stormwater Center. The authors used “time-of-flight” mass spectrometry to identify novel compounds in runoff and fish tissues that were present in amounts as small as the parts per billion. Work is still in the early stages, but so far the authors have found everything from the usual suspects like petroleum products to DEET and caffeine. “Further characterization of highway runoff and fish tissues,” the paper reads, “suggests that many novel or poorly characterized organic contaminants exist in urban stormwater runoff and exposed biota.”
Citation:
Du, B., Lofton, J. M., Peter, K., Gipe, A. D., James, C. A., McIntyre, J. K., Scholz, N.L., Baker, J.E. & Kolodziej, E. P. (2017). Development of Suspect and Non-Target Screening Methods for Detection of Organic Contaminants in Highway Runoff and Fish Tissue with High-Resolution Time-of-Flight Mass Spectrometry. Environmental Science: Processes & Impacts.